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Contents
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Preface, Dr. Supachai Panitchpakdi, Secretary-General, UNCTAD
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iii
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Foreword
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Hon. Buyelwa Sonjica, South African Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs
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v
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Hon. Tim Groser, Minister of Trade and Associate Minister for Climate Change Issues (International Negotiations), New Zealand
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vii
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Acknowledgements
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xiv
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Acronyms
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xv
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Chapter 1. Opportunities from Low Carbon Growth
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I. De-toxifying finance and de-carbonizing the economy: opportunities for clean and sustainable growth in developing countries
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3
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Ulrich Hoffmann, UNCTAD secretariat
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A. Introduction
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3
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B. Root causes of the current systemic crisis and the importance of sustainable growth
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4
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C. Poles of clean growth for new, sustainable production and consumption patterns
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9
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D. Decarbonizing the economy: a new industrial revolution
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10
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E. Creating low-carbon and other poles of clean growth in developing countries
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13
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F. Why has the “greening” of economies not yet happened?
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21
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II. Sustainability and global economic recovery
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23
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Mark Halle, Executive Director, International Institute for Sustainable Development Europe (IISD-Europe)
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III. Carbon markets are not enough
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26
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Frank Ackerman, Stockholm Environment Institute and Tufts University
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A. The state of the debate
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26
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B. What would carbon prices accomplish?
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27
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C. Where do new technologies come from?
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28
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D. Carbon markets and developing countries
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29
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E. Conclusion
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30
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IV. Making the transfer of clean-energy technology effective: from concept to action
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31
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Aaron Cosbey, Associate and Senior Advisor, Trade and Investment, International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)
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Notes
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34
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References
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39
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Chapter 2. Growth Pole: Energy Efficiency
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I. Energy efficiency: turning challenges into opportunities for developing countries
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47
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Rene Vossenaar, former staff member of the UNCTAD secretariat
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A. Introduction
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47
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B. Benefits deriving from improvements in energy efficiency
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48
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C. Selected EE policies and measures
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53
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D. Energy efficiency in end-use sectors
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56
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E. The trade dimension
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60
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F. Institutional issues
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63
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G. Conclusions and recommendations
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65
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II. Energy efficiency in Brazil
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68
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Jayme Buarque de Hollanda and Pietro Erber, Brazilian Institute for Energy Efficiency
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A. Energy efficiency in Brazil
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68
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B. Barriers to energy efficiency
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71
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C. Conclusion
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76
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Notes
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77
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References
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81
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Chapter 3. Growth Pole: Sustainable Agriculture
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I. The effectiveness, efficiency and equity of market based and voluntary measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from the agri-food sector
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87
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Alexander Kasterine, Senior Adviser (Trade, Climate Change and Environment), International Trade Centre (UNCTAD/WTO) and David Vanzetti, Visiting Fellow, Crawford School of Economics and Government, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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A. Introduction
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87
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B. Impact of the agri-food sector on climate change
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88
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C. Emissions trading schemes and carbon taxes
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91
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D. Border tax adjustments
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96
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E. Payment for environmental services
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97
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F. Carbon labelling
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101
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G. Food miles
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105
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H. Summary and discussion
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108
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II. Organic agriculture – A productive means of low-carbon and high biodiversity food production
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112
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Urs Niggli, Director, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Switzerland
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A. Introduction
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112
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B. Characteristics of organic food and farming systems
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112
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C. Multifunctional characteristics of organic farming
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113
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D. Organic farms are well adapted to climate change
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116
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E. Can organic farming feed the world?
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116
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F. Conclusions
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117
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III. Developing low-carbon agricultural projects within global carbon markets: opportunities and challenges
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119
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Emergent Ventures, India Pvt. Ltd.
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A. Challenges and future policies
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120
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B. Synergy with other mitigation options
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121
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IV. Sustainable agriculture : considerations about methane emissions
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124
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Allan Rae, Professor, Department of Economics and Finance, Massey University, New Zealand
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A. Introduction
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124
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B. Livestock farming and methane emissions
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125
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C. Approaches to mitigation of livestock methane emissions
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126
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D. Conclusions and policy challenges
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127
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V. Impacts of climate policy on air and maritime transport in developing countries
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129
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Marc D. Davidson, Senior consultant, CE Delft, the Netherlands and Jasper Faber, Coordinator aviation and maritime, CE Delft, the Netherlands
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A. The context
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129
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B. The options
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130
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C. The potential impacts
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130
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D. Options to mitigate economic impacts on developing countries
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132
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E. Conclusions
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133
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Notes
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134
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References
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136
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Chapter 4. Growth Pole: Renewable Energy Technologies
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I. Harnessing the potential of renewables: the case of energy access in rural areas
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145
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Darlan F. Martí, UNCTAD secretariat
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A. Introduction
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145
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B. Energy poverty and the “missing Millennium Development Goal”
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146
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C. Rural electrification
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147
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D. Scaling up renewables: feasibility and prospects
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152
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E. Tapping regulatory and financial opportunities
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156
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F. Conclusion
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163
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II. Combining climate change mitigation actions with rural poverty reduction: DESI Power’s Employment and Power Partnership Programme
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165
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Hari N.Sharan, President, Decentralized Energy Systems India Ltd.
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A. Background
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165
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B. The EmPower partnership programme
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167
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C. Conclusion
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172
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III. Powering the green leap forward: China’s wind energy sector
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173
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Dong Wu, UNCTAD secretariat
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A. Public policy
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174
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B. Enterprise strategies
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175
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C. Technology clusters
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176
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D. Conclusion
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177
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IV. Liberalizing climate-friendly goods and technologies in the WTO: product coverage, modalities, challenges and the way forward
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178
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ZhongXiang Zhang, Senior Fellow, East-West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii
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A. Introduction
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178
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B. What products to liberalize and how?
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179
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C. The way forward
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181
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V. WTO negotiations on environmental goods and services: the case of renewables
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184
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Alexey Vikhlyaev, UNCTAD secretariat
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A. Introduction
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184
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B. Should renewables be fast-tracked?
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185
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C. Listing of environmental goods: what could be a logical outcome?
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186
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D. How to negotiate non-tariff concessions?
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188
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E. Living agreement instead of a living list?
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190
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F. Conclusions: Market access or market creation?
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192
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VI. The WTO negotiations on environmental goods and services: need for a change in mindset away from a free-standing sectoral deal
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194
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Barbara Fliess, Senior Analyst, Trade and Agriculture Directorate, OECD
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VII. Environmental goods: a reality check
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197
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Veena Jha, IDRC Research Fellow and Visiting professorial fellow, Warwick University
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A. Environmental goods do not reach all potential users
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197
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B. Restricting the scope of EGs
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198
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C. How important are tariffs?
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198
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D. What happens with rising GDP?
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198
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E. FDI growth correlates with trade in environmental goods
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198
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F. The importance of technical assistance
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199
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G. Developing-country negotiating strategies
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199
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H. Environmental services
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199
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Notes
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200
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References
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204
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